Chapter 6 The Age Of Reorganisation

The period following the disintegration of the vast Maurya Empire around 185 BCE is often referred to as the 'Age of Reorganisation' in Indian history. This era was marked by the fragmentation of the subcontinent into numerous smaller and larger kingdoms, which constantly competed for territory and power.

After the last Maurya emperor was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga, the empire collapsed, and many formerly tributary kingdoms asserted their independence. The weakening of the central authority and the subsequent political fragmentation made the northwestern regions particularly vulnerable to invasions from outside the subcontinent.

This age, spanning several centuries (roughly from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE), was characterized by dynamic political shifts, including internal conflicts among native dynasties and the arrival and rule of foreign powers. Alongside this political fluidity, the period witnessed remarkable developments in art, architecture, literature, trade, and significant cultural exchanges, creating a complex and vibrant historical tapestry.

The newly independent kingdoms engaged in continuous competition for territorial control, employing methods such as warfare and strategic matrimonial alliances (marriages arranged between royal families to strengthen ties and secure territories or support). Border regions were particularly contested for strategic advantage.

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Surge Of The Śhungas

Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty after overthrowing the last Maurya ruler, established a kingdom that controlled parts of north and central India. To assert his authority as a powerful sovereign, he performed the Ashvamedha Yajña, a traditional Vedic ritual where a horse is allowed to wander freely, symbolizing the king's claim over any territory it traverses unchallenged.

Although the Shunga empire was smaller in extent compared to the vast Maurya empire, Pushyamitra Shunga successfully defended his kingdom from potential external threats, including initial military engagements with the Indo-Greeks, while also maintaining friendly relations with them subsequently. However, the Shunga dynasty's rule lasted for about a century after Pushyamitra, after which it declined.

During the Shunga period, there was a notable revival of Vedic rituals and practices. Simultaneously, other established schools of thought, such as Buddhism and Jainism, continued to flourish and receive patronage. Sanskrit gained prominence as a language for philosophical discourse and literary works. The Yoga Sutras, compiled by Patanjali, are believed to have been composed during this era.

The Shungas were patrons of art and architecture. The Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, although possibly initiated during Ashoka's time, was significantly enhanced during the Shunga period with beautifully carved railings and gateways. These carvings depict scenes from the life of the Buddha and other narratives, considered among the earliest examples of Buddhist art in India.

Shunga art, particularly as seen in the railings and relief work at Bharhut, provides insights into the society, customs, and daily life of the period, including depictions of people, their attire, jewellery, occupations (like musicians and dancers), and beliefs.

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The Sātavāhanas

South of the Shunga territories, the Satavahana dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region, ruling over large parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Sometimes referred to as 'Andhras', the Satavahanas were a significant dynasty with capitals like Amravati and Pratishthana (Paithan).

The Satavahana kingdom experienced a period of flourishing trade and commerce. Their coins have been found across various regions of India, indicating extensive internal trade networks. Notably, many Satavahana coins depicted ships, signifying the importance of maritime trade, which connected them to distant markets, including the Roman Empire and West Asia. They exported goods like spices, textiles, sandalwood, ivory, and luxury items, while importing items like glass and perfumed ointments. Tolls and taxes on this active trade contributed significantly to the kingdom's revenue.

Agriculture thrived in the fertile regions watered by river systems like the Krishna and Godavari, providing a stable economic base for the kingdom. The relative political stability and economic prosperity under the Satavahanas fostered notable developments in literature, art, and culture.

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Life Under The Sātavāhanas

Insights into Satavahana society and life are available through inscriptions and archaeological finds. A unique tradition among the Satavahanas was the practice of princes sometimes incorporating their mother's name into their title, as seen in the case of Gautamiputra Satakarni, named after his mother Gautami Balashri.

Inscriptions, such as those found in the Naneghat caves near Pune, provide valuable information. An inscription by a Satavahana widow queen details her performance of Vedic rituals, including the Ashvamedha yajña, and her extensive donations (dana) to priests, scholars, monks, and workers, including land, animals, and silver coins. These inscriptions, written in Brahmi script, also contain early forms of numerals, showing resemblances to modern Indian numerals, which originated in India.

The Satavahanas were devout followers of Vasudeva (Krishna) but also extended patronage to other schools of thought, including Jainism and Buddhism. They granted tax-free agricultural land to scholars and monks of various traditions, supporting their studies and practices. Sites like the Karla caves near Lonavala, known for their impressive rock-cut architecture (carved structures from hillsides), demonstrate Satavahana patronage of Buddhist monasteries.

Sculptures from this period, like the Yaksha sculpture from Pitalkhora, sometimes contain inscriptions that identify the craftsperson, revealing that individuals engaged in different occupations (like goldsmiths) also possessed skills in other crafts (like stone carving).

The Satavahana Empire began to fragment into smaller kingdoms in the 3rd century CE, primarily due to weak central control and economic decline, once again paving the way for regional powers to rise.

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Coming Of The Chedis

Following the decline of the Maurya Empire, the region of Kalinga (modern-day Odisha), which had been the site of Ashoka's transformative war, re-emerged as a prominent power under the Chedi dynasty. One of their notable rulers was Kharavela.

King Kharavela was a follower of Jain teachings and was even referred to by some as 'bhikshu-raja' (monk-king), though he respected all schools of thought. The famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar are associated with his reign. These caves, carved into the rock, likely served as residences and assembly places for Jain monks. They are renowned for their intricate carvings, statues, and spacious rooms, representing a significant example of early rock-cut architecture.

A key source of information about Kharavela's reign is the Hathigumpha inscription, located in one of the Udayagiri caves and written in Brahmi script. This inscription details Kharavela's accomplishments year by year, including his military victories, benevolent works for his people's welfare, and his declaration of support and respect for all sects and schools of thought. This broad-minded approach towards diverse beliefs is considered a fundamental aspect of the 'Indian ethos'.

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Kingdoms And Life In The South

In the southern region of India, the period from roughly the 2nd or 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE saw the rise and prominence of three powerful kingdoms: the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandhyas. These kingdoms were influential in shaping the history, culture, and economy of South India. Notably, these southern kingdoms seem to have maintained their independence even during the height of the vast Maurya Empire, as indicated by Ashoka's edicts which mention them as distinct entities outside his direct control.

This era in South India is particularly known for its rich literary output, collectively referred to as 'Sangam literature', which gives the period its name, the 'Sangam Age'. The term 'Sangam' derives from the Sanskrit 'sangha', meaning 'association' or 'coming together', referring to the assemblies of poets whose works were compiled into several collections. Sangam literature is the oldest body of literature in South India and a crucial source for understanding the society, culture, and political life of the time. Sangam poetry is known for its skilled portrayal of personal emotions and societal values like heroism, justice, and generosity.

The Sangam literature identifies the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandhyas as the three principal 'crowned kings' of the South.

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The Cholas

The Cholas were a prominent dynasty ruling parts of South India for a very long period, from the 3rd century BCE until the 13th century CE. Early Chola rulers like Karikala are mentioned in Sangam literature for their military prowess, including defeating alliances of Cheras and Pandhyas.

Karikala is also credited with undertaking significant public works for the welfare of his people. A notable example is the Kallanai or Grand Anicut, a sophisticated water diversion system built on the Kaveri River. Located strategically, this structure helped divert river waters to irrigate vast areas of the Kaveri delta, transforming it into a highly productive agricultural region often called the 'rice bowl of the South'. The Kallanai, restored and modified over centuries, remains in use today, supporting agriculture and providing water to millions in Tamil Nadu.

Epic poems like the Silappadikaram, composed after the Sangam collections, offer vivid portrayals of life in the Chola capital city Puhar (Kāverīpattinam), alongside narratives that span across the territories of the Cheras and Pandhyas, and touch upon societal values like justice and a ruler's dharma.

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The Cheras

Known as the Keralaputras ('sons of Kerala'), the Cheras ruled over the western regions of South India, encompassing parts of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji (identified with modern Karur). The Cheras played a significant role in the region's cultural and economic history, actively supporting the growth of Tamil literature and patronizing Sangam poets.

The Chera kingdom was particularly renowned for its extensive trade connections, maintaining active links with the Roman Empire and West Asia. They were major exporters of Indian goods such as spices, timber, ivory, and pearls to the outside world.

Chera rulers issued their own coins, often featuring royal emblems, which provide archaeological evidence of their sovereignty and economic activities.

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The Pānḍyas

The Pandhya dynasty controlled parts of Tamil Nadu and surrounding areas, with their capital at present-day Madurai. Their rule extended back several centuries BCE, with successive kings expanding the kingdom.

The Pandhyas were a prosperous kingdom, involved in active internal trade and extensive trade with distant powers like the Greeks and Romans, as noted in accounts like Megasthenes' *Indika*. They were particularly known for their production and trade of pearls, which were a highly valued commodity in the ancient world. The Pandhyas also maintained a strong naval power.

Later Pandhya rulers made notable contributions to art, architecture, and regional prosperity. Inscriptions from the Pandhya period emphasize the kings' concern for their subjects' welfare and their encouragement of all schools of thought and belief, reflecting the prevalent ethos of tolerance and respect for diverse traditions.

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Invasions Of The Indo-Greeks

While powerful native dynasties like the Shungas and Satavahanas were consolidating their rule in parts of India, and the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandhyas thrived in the South, the northwestern frontier of the subcontinent became a gateway for invaders from outside.

Following Alexander the Great's brief campaign, the Greek satraps he left behind in the northwest eventually established their own independent kingdoms. These rulers and their successors came to be known as the Indo-Greeks. After the decline of the Maurya Empire, the weakened northwestern regions became vulnerable, allowing the Indo-Greeks to establish control over parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.

The arrival of the Indo-Greeks led to significant cultural interaction. While they were rulers, they were also influenced by the rich local Indian culture. This interaction resulted in a blend of Greek and Indian elements in various aspects of life, including governance, language, and notably, art and coinage.

The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh is a significant piece of evidence for this cultural confluence. The inscription on the pillar identifies Heliodorus as an Indo-Greek ambassador who became a devotee of Vasudeva (Krishna), praising him as the 'god of gods' and highlighting virtues like self-restraint, charity, and consciousness, indicating the influence of Indian philosophical and spiritual ideas on the foreigners.

Archaeological finds, particularly Indo-Greek coins found in North India, are a major source of information about these rulers. These coins, made of various metals like gold, silver, copper, and nickel, often featured portraits of kings on one side and Greek deities on the other. However, some coins uniquely depicted Indian deities like Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi, suggesting a degree of cultural assimilation or patronage of Indian beliefs by some Indo-Greek rulers.

The rule of the Indo-Greeks in the northwest eventually ended with the invasions of other groups, including the Indo-Scythians, also known as the Shakas, who ruled parts of northwestern and central India from the late 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The Shaka Samvat calendar, adopted as India's National Calendar, originated during this period.

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The Emergence Of The Kuṣhāṇas

Following the Shakas, the Kushanas, originally from Central Asia, emerged as a major power in India, probably entering the subcontinent in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, the Kushana empire was extensive, covering Central Asia and large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a significant period of cultural interaction and had a profound impact on Indian history.

The most powerful Kushana ruler was likely Kanishka. Besides his military campaigns, Kanishka was a significant patron of art and culture, fostering the development of new artistic styles and promoting cultural exchange.

Kushana coins reflect the diverse cultural and religious influences of their vast empire. Coins issued by Kanishka feature images of the emperor alongside various deities, including those from the Greek pantheon, as well as Indian deities like the Buddha and Shiva (often depicted with Nandi, the bull). Featuring figures like the Buddha and Shiva on his coins suggests Kanishka's open approach towards different belief systems and possibly an attempt to appeal to the diverse religious landscape of his empire.

The Kushanas controlled important sections of the ancient Silk Route network, which connected China with the Mediterranean world, passing through Central Asia and Persia. This control facilitated increased trade and cultural exchange between India and other regions of Asia and the West.

Kushana art and architecture are particularly celebrated for the fusion of Indian and Greco-Roman styles, visible in the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. These schools produced sculptures depicting a variety of deities from different traditions, reflecting the peaceful coexistence of various schools of thought.

• Gandhara School of Art: Developed in the western regions of Punjab (historically Gandhara). It blended Greco-Roman artistic elements (like realistic anatomy, flowing drapery) with Indian themes and iconography. Sculptures, often made from grey-black schist stone, included many detailed images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, showing both Indian and Hellenistic influences.
• Mathura School of Art: Flourished in the Mathura region of Uttar Pradesh. It developed a distinct Indian style, primarily using red sandstone. This school is known for its depictions of a wide range of Indian deities, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain figures (like Kubera, Lakshmi, Shiva, Buddha, Yakshas, and Yakshinis). Mathura sculptures are often characterized by fuller figures and smooth modelling, with less overt Greco-Roman influence compared to Gandhara.

The Kushana era also saw an increase in the development of religious art and human-like representations of deities, laying groundwork for future temple architecture. The art from this period, whether Gandhara or Mathura style, showcases the cultural intermixing and the dominance of Indian themes and figures within these new artistic expressions.

Despite the political fragmentation and foreign invasions, the 'Age of Reorganisation' was a period of vibrant cultural exchange and assimilation. Different cultures interacted, influenced each other, and blended, particularly evident in art, architecture, and coinage, while Indian themes and traditions maintained a dominant role. The era also saw a flourishing of literature, notably the composition of major Sanskrit epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana in their current forms, further solidifying shared cultural narratives across the subcontinent.

This period demonstrates that Indian history is not just about the rise and fall of kingdoms but a continuous, dynamic process of interaction, adaptation, and reorganisation, enriching the 'Tapestry of the Past'.